Сategory of number of nouns

The plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s [z, s, iz]: boy – boys, book – books, box – boxes.

Compare the Russian noun стол (столы) which also has a zero-inflexion in the nominative case of the singular, with the noun река (реки), which has a positive inflexion in the nominative case of the singular as well as of the plural.

The inflexion – (e) s is a modification of the Old English

plural inflexion – as. In Old English there were several ways of forming the plural; the – as inflexion which was used only with masculine nouns, later on in its modified form (-as>-es>-s) became the general inflexion of the plural of nouns.

The plural inflexion is pronounced [iz] after voiced consonants and vowels: cabs, raids, tables, pens, factories, tractors; [s] after voiceless consonants: books, pilots, pipes; [iz] after sibilants: classes, bushes, branches, boxes.

Note. – Nouns ending in a mute – e preceded by a sibilant, in spelling – se, ce, – ze, – (d) ge, add the inflexion – s [iz] horse – horses; price – prices; size – sizes; bridge – bridges: village – villages.

2. With some nouns the final voiceless consonant is changed into a corresponding voiced consonant before the inflexion – es [z] is added. To this group belong:

a) Nouns ending in – fe or – f [f]. The f is changed into v (consonant interchange), and the inflexion – es [z] is added: knife–knives; shelf – shelves; wife – wives.

Note. – Some nouns ending in – f or – ff, simply add – s [s] in the plural: roof – roofs; chief – chiefs; handkerchief – handkerchiefs; cliff – cliffs; cuff – cuffs; muff – muffs.

The following nouns have double forms: hoof – hoofs, hooves; scarf – scarfs, scarves.

b) Some nouns ending in – th [θ], change the θ into [3]: mouth [mauθ] – mouths [mauθz]; path [pa:θ] – paths [pa:θz]; bath [ba:θ] – baths [ba:3z].

c) The noun house [haus] – houses ['hauziz].

Peculiarities of Spelling. Notice the following:

a) When a noun ends in – y preceded by a consonant is replaced by – i and the ending – es [iz] is added: city – cities; country – countries; penny – pennies (when a sum of money and not separate coins is meant the plural form pence is used: It costs five pence.But: Five pennieswere lying on the table).

b) When a noun ends in – o with a preceding consonant, – es [z] is usually added: hero – heroes; Negro–Negroes; potato – potatoes; tomato – tomatoes. But: piano – pianos; photo – photos; zero – zeros.

c) The plural of proper names and other parts of speech, figures, letters, etc. when substantivized, are sometimes written in the ordinary way, sometimes with an 's added:

The two Mary's or the two Marys(y remains unchanged). Mind your P's and Q's. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Don't use so many buts.

Oh, no, no, a thousand no's.[17]»… Mr. Copperfield objected to my threesand fivesbeing too much alike each other, or to my putting curly tails to my sevens and nines,» resumed my mother. [10]

3. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural:

a) By changing the root-vowel (vowel interchange): man – men, woman – women, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, mouse – mice;

b) By changing the root-vowel (vowel interchange) and adding the inflexion [en], in spelling – en: child – children; brother – brethren.1

4. Plural of Compound Nouns.

a) In compound nouns usually the head-noun takes the plural form: fellow-worker – fellow-workers; school-mate – school-mates; air-raid – air-raids; editor-in-chief – editors-in-chief; brother-in-law – brothers-in-law.

b)Compounds ending in – man change – man into – men in spelling, but in pronunciation there is no difference between the singular and the plural: postman ['poustman] – postmen ['poustman].

Such nouns as German, Roman, and Norman are not compounds. They form their plural in the usual way: Germans, Romans, Normans.

c) When the compound does not contain any noun, the plural is formed by adding – s to the last word: forget-me-not – forget-me-nots; merry-go-round (карусель) – merry-go-rounds; hold-all (порт плед) – hold-alls; overall – overalls.

d)Compounds in – fut add – s to the end: handful – handfuls; spoonful – spoonfuls; but also: columns-full (in newspapers).

e) If a proper noun is preceded by a title, the sign of the plural is added either to the title or to the proper noun itself; in colloquial speech it is usual to add the – s to the proper noun; in official speech the title is pluralized.

Colloquial: The two doctor Thompsons.The Miss SmithsOfficial: Messrs Jones. The MissesSmith.

The Miss Crumptons or to quote the authorities of the inscription on the garden-gate: The Misses Crumpton. [10]

f) An adjectivized noun in attributive function is, as a rule, used in the singular even if the meaning is plural: a four-storey house, a five-act play, the printed-book section of a museum.

Itwas a three-milewalk along a dry white road, made whiter to-night by the light of the moon. [9]

There is, however, a growing tendency in recent times to use the plural form, especially in long official terms: a two-thirdsmajority; the food products department; the sportsgrounds; the United NationsOrganization; parcelspost.

Two powerful engines were pulling a goodstrain up the sharp incline… [4]

Streams of people were pouring out from the SportsGround… [4]

In many instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Accordingly, the use of the apostrophe wavers:

a) No apostrophe:

I enjoyed several hourssleep. There is twenty years difference in their age. I had only two shillingspocket money. A bridge of only two planks breadth.

b) An apostrophe:

A five years' child. The Seven Years’War. Atwo months' baby.

…it was a two-and-a half hours' drive. [21]

5. Plural Identical in Form With the Singular. – Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural (either always or in certain combinations).

Those nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals.

The following nouns have one form for both singular and plural:

a) Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine:

… The sheep on the Downs lay quiet as stones. [21] 'Oh, Elizabeth, look, look! The deer!''…Oh yes! How funny the little ones are! But how graceful!' [20]

b) The noun fish and nouns denoting some sorts of fish, such as trout,cod, pike, salmon:

One day he caught a beautiful big fish…[11] In the water tiny fish swam between the olive growths of seaweed… [8] I know where trout are rising and where the salmonleap. [24]

To denote kinds of fish the form fishes is used:

There were many fishesin the net. She has bought a large book on our freshwater fishes. These pools swarm with a great variety of fishes.

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